Since the official launch of Runes of Magic in March, the team at Frogster Interactve and Runewaker Entertainment have been incredibly busy developing more and more tasty content for players to enjoy - for free! With more than 1,600 quests in the world so far and counting, Runes of Magic is proving to be a really solid, feature-rich free-to-play title. Now we've received word that the RoM team is at it again, this time including more piratey content based on the recently introduced Black Sail Pirates. This new dungeon for players to explore is called the Secret of the Treasure Trove, and it will offer lots of swashbucklin' adventure for those scurvy dogs brave enough to step foot in there.
This new area, a cave located off the new area Ravenfell, will be home to a bevy of new monsters - from undead pirates and skeletal warriors, to weird mutated part-squid monsters. Players will also have the chance to test their skills against a variety of named mobs from a giant octopus named 'Will's Curse' to the missing pirate leader, 'Snow Blake', and her fearsome phantasmagorical crew. So if ye be lookin' for a Treasure Trove of adventure, this sounds like it may just be your Runes of Magic ticket, mateys.
Ignition Entertainment has confirmed that King of Fighters XII will be coming to the Xbox 360 and Playstation 3 this Summer. The game has had its up and downs as of lately with one of the longest development cycles for any series title to date, but that is okay. Only if we can get a great game at the end.
But, with time we’ll be able to see how the game has been rebuild from the ground up - with an all new engine and a in-depth improved character sprites. Speaking of, you can view the trailer here.
When you think about it, it's amazing how many different types of electronic memory you encounter in daily life. Many of them have become an integral part of our vocabulary:
You already know that the computer in front of you has memory. What you may not know is that most of the electronic items you use every day have some form of memory also. Here are just a few examples of the many items that use memory:
In this article, you'll learn why there are so many different types of memory and what all of the terms mean. On the next page, let's start with the basics: What exactly does computer memory do?
Computer Memory Basics
Although memory is technically any form of electronic storage, it is used most often to identify fast, temporary forms of storage. If your computer's CPU had to constantly access the hard drive to retrieve every piece of data it needs, it would operate very slowly. When the information is kept in memory, the CPU can access it much more quickly. Most forms of memory are intended to store data temporarily.
As you can see in the diagram above, the CPU accesses memory according to a distinct hierarchy. Whether it comes from permanent storage (the hard drive) or input (the keyboard), most data goes in random access memory (RAM) first. The CPU then stores pieces of data it will need to access, often in a cache, and maintains certain special instructions in the register. We'll talk about cache and registers later.
All of the components in your computer, such as the CPU, the hard drive and the operating system, work together as a team, and memory is one of the most essential parts of this team. From the moment you turn your computer on until the time you shut it down, your CPU is constantly using memory. Let's take a look at a typical scenario:
You turn the computer on.
The computer loads data from read-only memory (ROM) and performs a power-on self-test (POST) to make sure all the major components are functioning properly. As part of this test, the memory controller checks all of the memory addresses with a quick read/write operation to ensure that there are no errors in the memory chips. Read/write means that data is written to a bit and then read from that bit.
The computer loads the basic input/output system (BIOS) from ROM. The BIOS provides the most basic information about storage devices, boot sequence, security, Plug and Play (auto device recognition) capability and a few other items.
The computer loads the operating system (OS) from the hard drive into the system's RAM. Generally, the critical parts of the operating system are maintained in RAM as long as the computer is on. This allows the CPU to have immediate access to the operating system, which enhances the performance and functionality of the overall system.
When you open an application, it is loaded into RAM. To conserve RAM usage, many applications load only the essential parts of the program initially and then load other pieces as needed.
After an application is loaded, any files that are opened for use in that application are loaded into RAM.
When you save a file and close the application, the file is written to the specified storage device, and then it and the application are purged from RAM.
In the list above, every time something is loaded or opened, it is placed into RAM. This simply means that it has been put in the computer's temporary storage area so that the CPU can access that information more easily. The CPU requests the data it needs from RAM, processes it and writes new data back to RAM in a continuous cycle. In most computers, this shuffling of data between the CPU and RAM happens millions of times every second. When an application is closed, it and any accompanying files are usually purged (deleted) from RAM to make room for new data. If the changed files are not saved to a permanent storage device before being purged, they are lost.
One common question about desktop computers that comes up all the time is, "Why does a computer need so many memory systems?"
Why so many? The answer to this question can teach you a lot about memory!
Fast, powerful CPUs need quick and easy access to large amounts of data in order to maximize their performance. If the CPU cannot get to the data it needs, it literally stops and waits for it. Modern CPUs running at speeds of about 1 gigahertz can consume massive amounts of data -- potentially billions of bytes per second. The problem that computer designers face is that memory that can keep up with a 1-gigahertz CPU is extremely expensive -- much more expensive than anyone can afford in large quantities.
Computer designers have solved the cost problem by "tiering" memory -- using expensive memory in small quantities and then backing it up with larger quantities of less expensive memory.
The cheapest form of read/write memory in wide use today is the hard disk. Hard disks provide large quantities of inexpensive, permanent storage. You can buy hard disk space for pennies per megabyte, but it can take a good bit of time (approaching a second) to read a megabyte off a hard disk. Because storage space on a hard disk is so cheap and plentiful, it forms the final stage of a CPUs memory hierarchy, called virtual memory.
The next level of the hierarchy is RAM. We discuss RAM in detail in How RAM Works, but several points about RAM are important here.
The bit size of a CPU tells you how many bytes of information it can access from RAM at the same time. For example, a 16-bit CPU can process 2 bytes at a time (1 byte = 8 bits, so 16 bits = 2 bytes), and a 64-bit CPU can process 8 bytes at a time.
Megahertz (MHz) is a measure of a CPU's processing speed, or clock cycle, in millions per second. So, a 32-bit 800-MHz Pentium III can potentially process 4 bytes simultaneously, 800 million times per second (possibly more based on pipelining)! The goal of the memory system is to meet those requirements.
A computer's system RAM alone is not fast enough to match the speed of the CPU. That is why you need a cache (discussed later). However, the faster RAM is, the better. Most chips today operate with a cycle rate of 50 to 70 nanoseconds. The read/write speed is typically a function of the type of RAM used, such as DRAM, SDRAM, RAMBUS. We will talk about these various types of memory later.
First, let's talk about system RAM.
System RAM
System RAM speed is controlled by bus width and bus speed. Bus width refers to the number of bits that can be sent to the CPU simultaneously, and bus speed refers to the number of times a group of bits can be sent each second. A bus cycle occurs every time data travels from memory to the CPU. For example, a 100-MHz 32-bit bus is theoretically capable of sending 4 bytes (32 bits divided by 8 = 4 bytes) of data to the CPU 100 million times per second, while a 66-MHz 16-bit bus can send 2 bytes of data 66 million times per second. If you do the math, you'll find that simply changing the bus width from 16 bits to 32 bits and the speed from 66 MHz to 100 MHz in our example allows for three times as much data (400 million bytes versus 132 million bytes) to pass through to the CPU every second.
In reality, RAM doesn't usually operate at optimum speed. Latency changes the equation radically. Latency refers to the number of clock cycles needed to read a bit of information. For example, RAM rated at 100 MHz is capable of sending a bit in 0.00000001 seconds, but may take 0.00000005 seconds to start the read process for the first bit. To compensate for latency, CPUs uses a special technique called burst mode.
Burst mode depends on the expectation that data requested by the CPU will be stored in sequential memory cells. The memory controller anticipates that whatever the CPU is working on will continue to come from this same series of memory addresses, so it reads several consecutive bits of data together. This means that only the first bit is subject to the full effect of latency; reading successive bits takes significantly less time. The rated burst mode of memory is normally expressed as four numbers separated by dashes. The first number tells you the number of clock cycles needed to begin a read operation; the second, third and fourth numbers tell you how many cycles are needed to read each consecutive bit in the row, also known as the wordline. For example: 5-1-1-1 tells you that it takes five cycles to read the first bit and one cycle for each bit after that. Obviously, the lower these numbers are, the better the performance of the memory.
Burst mode is often used in conjunction with pipelining, another means of minimizing the effects of latency. Pipelining organizes data retrieval into a sort of assembly-line process. The memory controller simultaneously reads one or more words from memory, sends the current word or words to the CPU and writes one or more words to memory cells. Used together, burst mode and pipelining can dramatically reduce the lag caused by latency.
So why wouldn't you buy the fastest, widest memory you can get? The speed and width of the memory's bus should match the system's bus. You can use memory designed to work at 100 MHz in a 66-MHz system, but it will run at the 66-MHz speed of the bus so there is no advantage, and 32-bit memory won't fit on a 16-bit bus.
Even with a wide and fast bus, it still takes longer for data to get from the memory card to the CPU than it takes for the CPU to actually process the data. That's where caches come in.
Cache and Registers
Caches are designed to alleviate this bottleneck by making the data used most often by the CPU instantly available. This is accomplished by building a small amount of memory, known as primary or level 1 cache, right into the CPU. Level 1 cache is very small, normally ranging between 2 kilobytes (KB) and 64 KB.
The secondary or level 2 cache typically resides on a memory card located near the CPU. The level 2 cache has a direct connection to the CPU. A dedicated integrated circuit on the motherboard, the L2 controller, regulates the use of the level 2 cache by the CPU. Depending on the CPU, the size of the level 2 cache ranges from 256 KB to 2 megabytes (MB). In most systems, data needed by the CPU is accessed from the cache approximately 95 percent of the time, greatly reducing the overhead needed when the CPU has to wait for data from the main memory.
A particular type of RAM, static random access memory (SRAM), is used primarily for cache. SRAM uses multiple transistors, typically four to six, for each memory cell. It has an external gate array known as a bistable multivibrator that switches, or flip-flops, between two states. This means that it does not have to be continually refreshed like DRAM. Each cell will maintain its data as long as it has power. Without the need for constant refreshing, SRAM can operate extremely quickly. But the complexity of each cell make it prohibitively expensive for use as standard RAM.
The SRAM in the cache can be asynchronous or synchronous. Synchronous SRAM is designed to exactly match the speed of the CPU, while asynchronous is not. That little bit of timing makes a difference in performance. Matching the CPU's clock speed is a good thing, so always look for synchronized SRAM. (For more information on the various types of RAM, see How RAM Works.)
The final step in memory is the registers. These are memory cells built right into the CPU that contain specific data needed by the CPU, particularly the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU). An integral part of the CPU itself, they are controlled directly by the compiler that sends information for the CPU to process. See How Microprocessors Work for details on registers.
Overheating laptops have gotten a lot of press over the last few years. The problem first gained popular attention around 2006, when reports of laptops actually catching fire started trickling in around the globe. The problem there was faulty batteries, and companies like Dell, Sony and Acer had to initiate major recalls.
The general issue of hot laptops is separate from those bad batteries, but laptop "explosions" certainly brought attention to the basic cause: Scorching heat is a bad trait for something that sits on your lap. People have actually gotten burned [source: BBC]. Short of that, hard drives are damaged by excessive heat.
But if the problem isn't a bad battery, what's making these laptops so hot?
You've probably noticed that all of your electronics get hot when they run for a while -- try putting your hand on the DVD player after you play a movie. Electronic components generate heat when they're working, and your laptop is no different.
In this article, we'll find out why laptops get so hot and see what you can do -- in terms of both maintenance and add-ons -- to keep yours cool. You don't even have to spend any money to do it.
There are two major reasons why laptops have more of an overheating problem than desktops. First, since laptops are smaller than desktops, those electronic components are crammed in there more tightly. Since they're closer together, and since the casing of a laptop is so narrow, there's not much room for the heat to dissipate.
The other issue is power. As laptops get more powerful processors, and as operating systems require more of that processing power to run, more heat is being generated inside the case.
Of course, laptop manufacturers know about this, and there's lot of stuff inside the unit that's supposed to remove this heat. Fans, heat sinks and air vents all work to cool down a laptop while it's running. Sometimes, though, it's just not enough. Overheating can happen when a fan isn't working properly or there's some other malfunction. But sometimes, it's more the user's fault than the machine's.
So before we go discuss an external cooling setup, let's find out how we can help our laptops stay cool on their own.
Laptop Cooling: Stuff You Can Do
Making sure your laptop's cooling abilities are working well can go a long way toward avoiding or fixing a problem. So one of the best ways to keep your laptop from overheating is simply to take care of it.
If you notice that your laptop is generating a lot of heat, and if the fans start kicking on at shorter intervals, the first thing to do is some basic maintenance:
Check your fans: The best way to make sure your fans are working properly is to use diagnostic software, since the fans are inside the case, and sometimes opening a laptop case can void the warranty. Go to the Web site of your laptop maker and see if there's a fan-diagnosing tool you can download. If not, you can download one from another reliable vendor online.
Clean the air vents: Most laptops use airflow to aid with cooling. They have intake vents near the front of the case, and exhaust vents at the back. Dust and debris can block these vents and impede airflow. Probably the easiest way to clean the vents is to blast them with compressed air. You can find compressed air products at any office supply store. You can also go over the vents them with a slightly damp (not wet) cloth.
Check your BIOS settings: There are software settings that tell your computer how hot is too hot and at what temperature the fans should kick in. Sometimes, BIOS updates implement revised temperature settings, which can help you optimize cooling. Check your laptop manufacturer's Web site for a BIOS update, but be careful -- BIOS is a trickier software system to update than the usual operating system stuff. You may want to request some experienced backup.
Once you've got your computer's cooling system on track, you can work on your laptop habits to keep it that way. It's mostly just common sense stuff: Don't use your laptop in the sun, keep it away from radiators and heat vents, and never let it sit in a hot car. One habit that can really help, though, is a bit counterintuitive: Keep your laptop off your lap.
Even if your laptop's cooling system is working as efficiently as possible, you can still do more. The strange fact is, when you use a laptop on your lap, you're just asking for it to overheat. Any soft surface impedes airflow into and out of the cooling vents. It also can cause heat to get caught underneath the unit. This is how people's laps get burnt.
However, heat buildup can even happen when the laptop sits directly on a desk.
There are a few different approaches to avoiding this type of heat trap. One is the laptop stand, which puts some distance between the bottom of the laptop and the surface you're using it on. It basically creates a space where heat can dissipate. A stand is usually some type of flat, thin surface with short legs, and you can lay it across your lap or on a desk. With an inch or two of air underneath the laptop, heat can escape easily, and airflow through the vents is totally open.
Sometimes, a stand might be made of a special material like aluminum that acts as a heat sink. This device would actively draw heat out of the laptop to further aid in cooling.
Another way to go is a laptop pad or mat. In this approach, like with the aluminum heat sink, you're putting the device on an actively heat-managing surface. This might mean an insulating mat that traps the heat coming out of the laptop to protect your lap. It could also mean a thick pad with fans built in to actively draw out and dissipate heat.
While you can buy one of these cooling tools in any electronics store or from dozens of retailers online, you might have something in your home right now you can use. A little slatted camping table can work as a laptop stand. So can a large baking rack (that you use to cool cookies on).
One thing to remember is that the heat characteristics of your laptop are always changing, depending on age, environment and power usage. So even if you get yourself the perfect cooling setup, you might want to install some sort of heat-monitoring software. It'll help you be more aware of your laptop's fluctuating temperatures and learn how different situations can increase the heat.
For more information on laptop cooling tools, laptop maintenance and related products, look over the links on the next page.
Martin, James A. "Mobile Computing: Overheated Notebooks." March 25, 2004. http://www.pcworld.com/article/115158/mobile_computing_overheated_notebooks.html
Moore, Charles. "7 Tools for Keeping Your Laptop Cool." Low End Mac. July 24, 2006. http://lowendmac.com/misc/06/0724.html
Read, Paul. "How to Keep Your Laptop Cool." Suite101. July 15, 2007. http://computeraccessories.suite101.com/article.cfm/how_to_keep_your_laptop_cool
Ignition Entertainment has confirmed that King of Fighters XII will be coming to the Xbox 360 and Playstation 3 this Summer. The game has had its up and downs as of lately with one of the longest development cycles for any series title to date, but that is okay. Only if we can get a great game at the end.
